what is CALL???

Computer Assisted Language Learning:
an Introduction

by Mark Warschauer

Reprinted with permission of Logos International. Please cite as:
Warschauer M. (1996) "Computer Assisted Language Learning: an Introduction".
In Fotos S. (ed.) Multimedia language teaching, Tokyo: Logos International: 3-20.

We are grateful to Mark Warschauer for allowing us to reproduce this article at the ICT4LT site. The article has an important place in the history of CALL, which we cover in Section 2, Module 1.4 at the ICT4LT site, and it is especially relevant to the various attempts to document a CALL typology and phases of CALL, which we cover in Section 3, Module 1.4.
ICT4LT Editor's Note: External links in this article are regularly checked by Graham Davies, Editor of the ICT4LT website. and amended where necessary. A number of notes containing updated information and internal links to other sections of the ICT4LT site have also been inserted.

Links checked 7 December 2010

---

Abstract

Until quite recently, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) was a topic of relevance mostly to those with a special interest in that area. Recently, though, computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers for language learning.
This article provides brief overview of how computers have been used and are being used for language teaching. It focuses not on a technical description of hardware and software, but rather on the pedagogical questions that teachers have considered in using computers in the classroom. For those who want more detailed information on particular applications, a typology of CALL programs (Appendix A) and a list of further CALL resources (Appendix B) is included at the end.

Three phases of CALL

Though CALL has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases which I will refer to as behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL (cf. Barson & Debski 1996). As we will see, the introduction of a new phase does not necessarily entail rejecting the programs and methods of a previous phase; rather the old is subsumed within the new. In addition, the phases do not gain prominence one fell swoop, but, like all innovations, gain acceptance slowly and unevenly. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 3, Module 1.4, where CALL typology and phases of CALL are discussed further.]

Behavioristic CALL

The first phase of CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and '70s, was based on the then-dominant behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice" (or, more pejoratively, as "drill and kill").
Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor (Taylor 1980). In other words the computer serves as a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows:

• Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning
• A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback
• A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities

Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex 1985).
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL.

Communicative CALL

The second phase of CALL was based on the communicative approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value.
One of the main advocates of this new approach was John Underwood, who in 1984 proposed a series of "Premises for 'Communicative' CALL" (Underwood 1984:52). According to Underwood, communicative CALL:

• focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves;
• teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly;
• allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language;
• does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;
• avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses;
• uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and
• will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.

Another critic of behavioristic CALL, Vance Stevens, contends that all CALL courseware and activities should build on intrinsic motivation and should foster interactivity - both learner-computer and learner-learner (Stevens 1989).
Several types of CALL programs were developed and used during this the phase of communicative CALL. First, there were a variety of programs to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. Examples of these types of programs include courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games (Healey & Johnson 1995b). In these programs, like the drill and practice programs mentioned above, the computer remains the "knower-of-the-right-answer" (Taylor & Perez 1989:3); thus this represents an extension of the computer as tutor model. But - in contrast to the drill and practice programs - the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction.
In addition to computer as tutor, another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus (Taylor & Perez 1989:63). In this case, the purpose of the CALL activity is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students' discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners, programs such as Sim City, Sleuth, or Where in the World is San Diego? (Healey & Johnson 1995b).
The third model of computers in communicative CALL involves the computer as tool (Brierley & Kemble 1991; Taylor 1980) or, as sometimes called, the computer as workhorse (Taylor & Perez 1989). In this role, the programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples of computer as tool include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers.
Of course the distinction between these models is not absolute. A skill practice program can be used as a conversational stimulus, as can a paragraph written by a student on a word processor. Likewise, there are a number of drill and practice programs which could be used in a more communicative fashion - if, for example, students were assigned to work in pairs or small groups and then compare and discuss their answers (or, as Higgins 1988, students can even discuss what inadequacies they found in the computer program) In other words, the dividing line between behavioristic and communicative CALL does involves not only which software is used, but also how the software is put to use by the teacher and students.
On the face of things communicative CALL seems like a significant advance over its predecessor. But by the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential (Kenning & Kenning 1990; Pusack & Otto 1990; Rüschoff 1993). Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus "finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements" of the language teaching process (Kenning & Kenning 1990: 90).
These critiques of CALL dovetailed with broader reassessments of the communicative approach to language teaching. No longer satisfied with teaching compartmentalized skills or structures (even if taught in a communicative manner), a number of educators were seeking ways to teach in a more integrative manner, for example using task- or project-based approaches . The challenge for advocates of CALL was to develop models which could help integrate the various aspects of the language learning process. Fortunately, advances in computer technology were providing the opportunities to do just that.

Steps toward integrative CALL: multimedia

Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade - multimedia computers and the Internet. Multimedia technology - exemplified today by the CD-ROM - allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be accessed on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is that it also entails hypermedia. That means that the multimedia resources are all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Module 2.2, Introduction to multimedia CALL.]
Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language learning. First of all, a more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world. Secondly, skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity. Third, students have great control over their learning, since they can not only go at their own pace but even on their own individual path, going forward and backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects and skipping other aspects altogether. Finally, a major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies. For example, while the main lesson is in the foreground, students can have access to a variety of background links which will allow them rapid access to grammatical explanations or exercises, vocabulary glosses, pronunciation information, or questions or prompts which encourage them to adopt an appropriate learning strategy.
An example of how hypermedia can be used for language learning is the program Dustin which is being developed by the Institute for Learning Sciences at Northwestern University (Schank & Cleary 1995). The program is a simulation of a student arriving at a U.S. airport. The student must go through customs, find transportation to the city, and check in at a hotel. The language learner using the program assumes the role of the arriving student by interacting with simulated people who appear in video clips and responding to what they say by typing in responses. If the responses are correct, the student is sent off to do other things, such as meeting a roommate. If the responses are incorrect, the program takes remedial action by showing examples or breaking down the task into smaller parts. At any time the student can control the situation by asking what to do, asking what to say, asking to hear again what was just said, requesting for a translation, or controlling the level of difficulty of the lesson.
Yet in spite of the apparent advantages of hypermedia for language learning, multimedia software has so far failed to make a major impact. Several major problems have surfaced in regarding to exploiting multimedia for language teaching.
First, there is the question of quality of available programs. While teachers themselves can conceivably develop their own multimedia programs using authoring software such as Hypercard (for the Macintosh) or ToolBook (for the PC), the fact is that most classroom teachers lack the training or the time to make even simple programs, let alone more complex and sophisticated ones such as Dustin. This has left the field to commercial developers, who often fail to base their programs on sound pedagogical principles. In addition, the cost involved in developing quality programs can put them out of the market of most English teaching programs.
Beyond these lies perhaps a more fundamental problem. Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. A program like Dustin should ideally be able to understand a user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also or appropriateness. It should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax, or usage and then intelligently decide among a range of options (e.g. repeating, paraphrasing, slowing down, correcting, or directing the student to background explanations).
Computer programs with that degree of intelligence do not exist, and are not expected to exist for quite a long time. Artificial Intelligence (AI) of a more modest degree does exist, but few funds are available to apply AI research to the language classroom. Thus while Intelligent CALL (Underwood 1989) may be the next and ultimate usage of computers for language learning, that phase is clearly a long way down the road. [IC4LT Editor's Note: See the references to ICALL (Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning) in Module 3.5, Human Language Technologies.]
Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL. Using multimedia may involve an integration of skills (e.g. listening with reading), but it too seldom involves a more important type of integration - integrating meaningful and authentic communication into all aspects of the language learning curriculum. Fortunately, though, another technological breakthrough is helping make that possible - electronic communication and the Internet.

Steps toward integrative CALL: the Internet

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), which has existed in primitive form since the 1960s but has only became wide-spread in the last five years, is probably the single computer application to date with the greatest impact on language teaching. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 14, Module 1.5, for further information on CMC.] For the first time, language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This communication can be asynchronous (not simultaneous) through tools such as electronic mail (email), which allows each participant to compose messages at their time and pace, or in can be synchronous (synchronous, "real time"), using programs such as MOOs, which allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many, allowing a teacher or student to share a message with a small group, the whole class, a partner class, or an international discussion list of hundreds or thousands of people.
Computer Mediated Communication allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy (formatted or unformatted) documents - thus facilitating collaborative writing - and also graphics, sounds, and video. Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials (e.g. newspaper and magazine articles, radio broadcasts, short videos, movie reviews, book excerpts) exactly tailored to their own personal interests. They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.
It is not hard to see how computer-mediated communication and the Internet can facilitate an integrative approach to using technology. The following example illustrates well how the Internet can be used to help create an environment where authentic and creative communication is integrated into all aspects of the course.
Students of English for Science and Technology in La Paz Mexico don't just study general examples and write homework for the teacher; instead they use the Internet to actually become scientific writers (Bowers 1995; Bowers 1996). First, the students search the World Wide Web to find articles in their exact area of specialty and then carefully read and study those specific articles. They then write their own drafts online; the teacher critiques the drafts online and creates electronic links to his own comments and to pages of appropriate linguistic and technical explanation, so that students can find additional background help at the click of a mouse. Next, using this assistance, the students prepare and publish their own articles on the World Wide Web, together with reply forms to solicit opinions from readers. They advertise their Web articles on appropriate Internet sites (e.g. scientific newsgroups) so that interested scientists around the world will know about their articles and will be able to read and comment on them. When they receive their comments (by email) they can take those into account in editing their articles for republication on the Web or for submission to scientific journals.
The above example illustrates an integrative approach to using technology in a course based on reading and writing. This perhaps is the most common use of the Internet to date, since it is still predominantly a text-based medium. This will undoubtedly change in the future, not only due to the transmission of audio-visual material (video clips, sound files) World Wide Web, but also due to the growing use of the Internet to carry out real-time audio- and audio-visual chatting (this is already possible with tools such as NetPhone and CU-SeeME, but is not yet widespread).
Nevertheless, it is not necessary to wait for further technological developments in order to use the Internet in a multi-skills class. The following example shows how the Internet, combined with other technologies, was used to help create an integrated communicative environment for EFL students in Bulgaria - students who until recent years had little contact with the English-speaking world and were taught through a "discrete topic and skill orientation" (Meskill & Rangelova 1995). These Bulgarian students now benefit from a high-tech/low-tech combination to implement an integrated skills approach in which a variety of language skills are practiced at the same time with the goal of fostering communicative competence. Their course is based on a collaborative, interpreted study of contemporary American short stories, assisted by three technological tools:

• Email communication. The Bulgarian students correspond by email with an American class of TESOL graduate students to explore in detail the nuances of American culture which are expressed in the stories, and also to ask questions about idioms, vocabulary, and grammar. The American students, who are training to be teachers, benefit from the concrete experience of handling students' linguistic and cultural questions .
• Concordancing. The Bulgarian students further test out their hypotheses regarding the lexical and grammatical meanings of expressions they find in the stories by using concordancing software to search for other uses of these expressions in a variety of English language corpora stored on CD-ROM.
• Audio tape. Selected scenes from the stories - dialogues, monologues, and descriptions - were recorded by the American students and provide both listening practice (inside and outside of class) and also additional background materials to help the Bulgarians construct their interpretation of the stories.

These activities are supplemented by a range of other classroom activities, such as in-class discussions and dialogue journals, which assist the students in developing their responses to the stories' plots, themes, and characters - responses which can be further discussed with their email partners in the US.
[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Module 1.5 and Module 2.3 for further information on using the Internet in the teaching of Modern Foreign Languages.]

Conclusion

The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials.
But as pointed out by Garrett (1991), "the use of the computer does not constitute a method". Rather, it is a "medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented" (p. 75). The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use.
As with the audio language lab "revolution" of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent results simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning opportunities of their students.

---

Appendix A:
A typology of CALL programs and applications

Computer as tutor

Grammar

CALL Programs designed for teaching grammar include drill and practice on a single topic (Irregular Verbs, Definite and Indefinite Articles), drills on a variety of topics (Advanced Grammar Series, English Grammar Computerized I and II), games (Code Breaker, Jr. High Grade Builder), and programs for test preparation (50 TOEFL SWE Grammar Tests) Grammar units are also included in a number of comprehensive multimedia packages (Dynamic English, Learn to Speak English Series).

Listening

This category includes programs which are specifically designed to promote second-language listening (Listen!), multi-skill drill and practice programs (TOEFL Mastery), multimedia programs for second language learners (Accelerated English, Rosetta Stone), and multimedia programs for children or the general public (Aesop's Fables, The Animals).

Pronunciation

Pronunciation programs (Sounds American, Conversations) generally allow students to record and playback their own voice and compare it to a model. Several comprehensive multimedia programs (Firsthand Access, The Lost Secret) include similar features.

Reading

This category includes reading programs designed for ESL learners (Reading Adventure 1 - ESL) and tutorials designed for children or the general public (MacReader, Reading Critically, Steps to Comprehension). and games (HangWord). Also included are more general educational programs which can assist reading (Navajo Vacation, The Night Before Christmas) and text reconstruction programs (see below).

Text reconstruction

Text reconstruction programs allow students to manipulate letters, words, sentences, or paragraphs in order to put texts together. They are usually inexpensive and can be used to support reading, writing, or discussion activities. Popular examples include Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super Cloze, Text Tanglers, and Double Up. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 8, Module 1.4, headed Text manipulation.]

Vocabulary

This category includes drill and practice programs (Synonyms), multimedia tutorials (English Vocabulary), and games (Hangman, Scrabble). Also useful are several reference and searching tools (such as concordancers) which will be described in the Computer as Tool section below.

Writing

Most software for supporting writing falls under the Computer as Tool category (see below). Exceptions include tutorials such as Sentence Combining, SentenceMaker, and Typing Tutor.

Comprehensive

A number of comprehensive multimedia programs are designed to teach ESL students a variety of skills. They range in price but many are quite expensive. Among the better known are Dynamic English, Ellis Mastery, English Discoveries, Rosetta Stone.

Computer as stimulus

The computer as stimulus category includes software which is used not so much as a tutorial in itself but to generate analysis, critical thinking, discussion, and writing. Of course a number of the above-mentioned programs (e.g. The Animals, Navajo Vacation, Night Before Christmas) can be used as a stimulus. Especially effective for a stimulus are programs which include simulations. Examples of this latter group include London Adventure, Oregon Trail, Sim City, Sleuth, Crimelab, Amazon Trail, Cross Country Canada/USA, and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?

Computer as Tool

Word processing

The most common use of computer as tool, and probably the most common use overall of the computer for language learning, is word processing. High quality programs like Microsoft Word can be useful for certain academic or business settings (Healey & Johnson 1995a). Programs such as ClarisWorks and Microsoft Works are cheaper and simpler to learn and still have useful features. SimpleText and TeachText are simpler yet and may be sufficient for many learners.

Grammar checkers

Grammar checkers (e.g. Grammatik) are designed for native speakers and they typically point to problems believed typical of native speaker writing (e.g. too much use of passives). They are usually very confusing to language learners and are not recommended for an ESL/EFL context. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 6.1, Module 1.3, headed Spellcheckers, grammar checkers and style checkers.]

Concordancers

Concordancing software searches through huge files of texts (called corpora, which is the plural of corpus) in order to find all the uses of a particular word (or collocation). While very confusing for beginners, concordancers can be a wonderful tool for advanced students of language, linguistics, or literature.
The best concordancer for language students and teachers is Oxford's MicroConcord. The program includes as an optional extra several large (total 1,000,000 words) taken from British newspapers. Or this program, and other concordancers as well, can be used with any other text files available in electronic form.
[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Module 2.4, Using concordance programs in the Modern Foreign Languages classroom.]

Collaborative writing

A number of tools exist to help students work on their writing collaboratively on computers linked in a local area network. The most popular among language teachers is Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment, which includes modules for real-time discussion, word processing, electronic mail, and brainstorming, as well as citation software and a dictionary. Other programs with some similar features are Aspects and MacCollaborator.

Reference

There are numerous CD versions of encyclopedias and dictionaries. Two which have highly recommended (Healey & Johnson 1995a) for language learners are the encyclopedia ENCARTA and the Longman Dictionary of American English.

Internet

The three most popular uses of the Internet for language teaching are electronic mail (email), the World Wide Web, and MOOs. Numerous programs exist for using electronic mail. The Eudora program has several nice features, including "point-and-click" word processing capacity, easy attachment of formatted files, and ability to include foreign characters and alphabets. The free version (Eudora Light) is suitable for most purposes; there is also a more powerful commercial version (Eudora Pro).
Eudora requires a direct connection to the Internet. Additional programs which run through the unix system and do not require a direct Internet connection are Pine and Elm.
To access the World Wide Web, one needs a special program called a browser. By far the most popular browser among educators is Netscape, which until now has been free to teachers and students. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: Internet Explorer is now the most widely used browser.]
MOOs ("Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented") allow for real time communication, simulation, and role playing among participants throughout the world, and a special MOO has been set up for ESL teachers and students (schmOOze University homepage 1995). The use of MOOs is greatly facilitated if one uses a special client software program such as TinyFugue (for Unix), MUDDweller (for Mac), or MUDwin (for Windows). [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 14.2, Module 1.5 for further information on MOOs and their latest manifestation, MUVEs.]

Authoring

Authoring allows teachers to tailor software programs either by inserting new texts or by modifying the activities. Authoring runs on a spectrum from set programs which allow slight modification (e.g. inclusion of new texts) to complex authoring systems.
Many of the programs listed earlier (e.g. MacReader, Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super Cloze, Text Tanglers, and Double Up) allow teachers to insert their own texts and thus make the programs more relevant to their own lessons (and greatly extend their shelf life too). By allowing the students themselves to develop and insert the texts, the programs can be made even more communicative and interactive.
On the other end of the spectrum, authoring systems allow teachers to design their own multimedia courseware. These can take a lot of time and effort to master, and are most often used by true enthusiasts. Some are specifically designed for language teachers (CALIS, DASHER), others for educators (Digital Chiseler) and others for the general public (Hypercard, Hyperstudio, Supercard, ToolBook, Macromind Director).
[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Module 2.5, Introduction to CALL authoring programs.]

---

Appendix B:
Additional CALL resources

Selected books

[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See also the CALL bibliography in the ICT4LT Resource Centre.]
Athelstan (1995) Technology and Language Learning Yearbook Vol 6, Houston, TX: Athelstan.
Dunkel P. (ed.) (1991) Computer-assisted language learning and testing: research issues and practice, New York, NY: Newbury House.
Hardisty D. & Windeatt S. (1989) CALL, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Healey D. (1995) Something to do on Tuesday, Houston: Athelstan.
Healey D. & Johnson N. (eds.) (1995) 1995 TESOL CALL interest section software list, Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Higgins J. (1988) Language, learners and computers, London: Longman.
Jones C. & Fortescue S. (1987) Using computers in the language classroom. London: Longman.
Kenning M.-M. & Kenning M. J. (1990) Computers and language learning: Current theory and practice. New York: Ellis Horwood.
Pennington M. (ed.) (1989) Teaching languages with computers: the state of the art. La Jolla, CA: Athelstan.
Schank R.C. & Cleary C. (1995) Engines for education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Taylor M.B. & Perez L.M. (1989) Something to do on Monday, La Jolla, CA: Athelstan.
Thompson J & Parsons J. (1995) ReCALL Software Guide No. 4, Hull, UK: CTI Centre for Modern Languages (CTICML), University of Hull. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: The CTICML has now closed down.]
Tribble C. & Jones G. (1990) Concordances in the classroom, Harlow: Longman.
Warschauer M. (1995a) Email for English teaching, Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Warschauer M. (ed.) (1995b) Telecollaboration in foreign language learning, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Warschauer M. (ed.) (1996) Virtual connections: online activities and projects for networking language learners, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Journals

[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See also the CALL bibliography in the ICT4LT Resource Centre.]
CALICO Journal: Published by CALICO, the US-based professional association.
Computer Assisted English Language Learning Journal (CAELL Journal): a journal for ESL teachers. Now defunct. Formerly published by ISTE, University of Orgeon. For back issues contact ISTE.
Computer Assisted Language Learning: Formerly published by Swets & Zeitlinger and now taken over by Taylor & Francis: http://www.tandf.co.uk


ON-CALL: In January 1999 the ON-CALL journal became available only online and in May 1999 merged with CALL-EJ. The joint journal, CALL-EJ, is now available at http://callej.org/. ON-CALL is no longer available online.
ReCALL: The Journal of EUROCALL, now published by Cambridge University Press. Members and guests log in at http://www.journals.cup.org. Back numbers are available at: http://www.eurocall-languages.org/recall/index.html
SYSTEM: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics, Elsevier:
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/335/description
TESL-EJ:
http://www.tesl-ej.org (English)
http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ (Japanese)

Electronic mail lists

[ICT4LT Editor's Note: Most of the folowing electronic mail lists that were described in the original version of Warschauer's article are no longer available. Electronic mail lists in general are a thing of the past. The modern trend is to use blogs or wikis or other forms of Web-based fora and discussion lists. See Section 12, Module 1.5, headed Discussion lists, blogs, wikis, social networking, and see the ICT4LT website blog at http://ictforlanguageteachers.blogspot.com]
EST-L (Teachers of English for Science & Technology): [ICT4LT Editor's Note: no longer available.]
JALTCALL (Japan Association for Language Teaching CALL)
http://jaltcall.org
Language Learning and Technology International Information (LLTI) Forum
http://listserv.dartmouth.edu/scripts/wa.exe?A0=LLTI
NETEACH-L (Using the Internet for teaching ESL): [ICT4LT Editor's Note: no longer available.]
TESL-L (Teachers of English as a Second Language): [ICT4LT Editor's Note: no longer available.]
TESLCA-L (Computer-Assisted sub-branch of TESL-L): [ICT4LT Editor's Note: no longer available.]
International Student Email Discussion Lists: [ICT4LT Editor's Note: no longer available.]

Professional associations

[ICT4LT Editor's Note: There are now many more professional associations for CALL. See the list under the heading Professional associations in the ICT4LT Resource Centre.]
AACE (Association for the Advancement of Computers in Education): http://www.aace.org
CALICO: http://www.calico.org
EUROCALL: http://www.eurocall-languages.org
ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education): http://www.iste.org
JALTCALL (Japan Association for Language Teaching CALL)
http://jaltcall.org
IATEFL: Learning Technologies SIG - formerly known as the Computer SIG and formerly known as MUESLI (Micro Users in ESL Institutions): http://iatefl-ltsig.grouply.com
TESOL CALL Interest Section: http://www.tesol.org

---

References

Ahmad K., Corbett G., Rogers M., & Sussex R. (1985) Computers, language learning and language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barson J. & Debski R. (1996) "Calling back CALL: technology in the service of foreign language learning based on creativity, contingency, and goal-oriented activity". In Warschauer M. (ed.) Telecollaboration in foreign language learning, Honolulu: University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center: 49-68.
Bowers R. (1995) "WWW-Based Instruction for EST". In Orr T. (ed.) English for science and technology: profiles and perspectives, Aizuwakamatsu, Japan: Center for Language Research, University of Aizu: 5-8.
Bowers R. (1996) "Web publishing for students of EST". In Warschauer (ed.) Virtual connections: online activities and projects for networking language learners, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawai Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Brierley B. & Kemble I. (1991) Computers as a tool in language teaching, New York: Ellis Horwood.
Garrett N. (1991) "Technology in the service of language learning: trends and issues", Modern Language Journal 75, 1: 74-101.
Healey D. & Johnson N. (eds.) (1995a) 1995 TESOL CALL interest section software list. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Healey D. & Johnson N. (1995b) "A brief introduction to CALL". In Healey D. & Johnson N. (eds.) 1995 TESOL CALL interest section software list Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications: iii-vii.
Higgins J. (1988) Language, learners and computers, London: Longman.
Kenning M-M. & Kenning M. J. (1990) Computers and language learning: current theory and practice, New York: Ellis Horwood.
Meskill C. & Rangelova K. (1995) "US language through literature: a transatlantic research project". In Warschauer M. (ed.) Virtual connections: online activities and projects for networking language learners, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Pusack J. & Otto S. (1990) "Applying instructional technologies", Foreign Language Annals 23, 5: 409-417.
Rüschoff B. (1993) "Language learning and information technology: state of the art", CALICO Journal 10, 3: 5-17.
Schank R. & Cleary C. (1995) Engines for education, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
schMOOze University homepage: http://schmooze.hunter.cuny.edu:8888/
Stevens V. (ed.) (1989) "A direction for CALL: from behavioristic to humanistic courseware". In Pennington M. (ed.), Teaching languages with computers: the state of the art, La Jolla, CA: Athelstan: 31-43.
Taylor M. & Perez L. (1989) Something to do on Monday, La Jolla, CA: Athelstan.
Taylor R. (1980) The computer in the school: tutor, tool, tutee, New York: Teachers College Press.
Underwood J. (1984) Linguistics, computers and the language teacher: a communicative approach, Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Underwood J. (1989) "On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s", Computers and the Humanities 23: 71-84.

---

© Mark Warschauer 1996

Language Learning & Technology
http:/llt.msu.edu/vol13num2/review1.pdf
June 2009, Volume 13, Number 2
pp. 15-21
Copyright © 2009. ISSN 1094-3501 15
REVIEW OF TIPS FOR TEACHING WITH CALL: PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
Tips for Teaching with CALL: Practical Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning [with CD]
Carol A. Chapelle and Joan Jamieson
2008
ISBN 0132404281
US $52.00 (paperback)
240 pp.
Pearson-Longman
White Plains, NY, USA
Review by Jesús García Laborda, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Tips for Teaching with CALL: Practical Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning [with CD] is one of the latest additions to Pearson-Longman’s professional development series. Since the mid-1980s, a number of publications have tried to introduce, teach, support, and provide ideas to foreign language instructors on the use of computers in the classroom (Hardisty & Windeatt, 1989). Some of these volumes are intended to encourage language teachers to use computers (Axtell, 2007; Gooden, 1996; Szendeffy, 2005) while others suggest specific ways of implementing Internet-based language teaching (e.g., Clarke, 2000; Griffin, 2006; Lee, Jor, & Lai, 2005; Sperling, 1998; Windeatt, Hardisty, & Eastment, 2000). In contrast to these titles, Tips for Teaching with CALL largely deals with Web sites that could be valuable for ESL/EFL teachers who are either beginning to implement CALL in their classes or who want to improve their teaching skills through computer based practice. In this sense, the book bears a certain resemblance to Sperling’s (1998) volume on Internet-based CALL, but, in contrast, Chapelle and Jamieson’s book also includes screenshots of the Web sites mentioned by the authors, and the authors relate the use of these Web sites to current language acquisition theory. Overall, the book will mostly benefit general practitioners, teachers who may be familiar with computers but are just beginning to use CALL in their classes, and expert teachers who may be looking for new materials.
For Chapelle and Jamieson, teachers play a decisive role in providing opportunities for learning and balancing online, in-class, and out-of-class activities. The authors also believe in the value of Internet-based resources, such as dictionaries, tutorials, and online libraries (Loucky, 2005). In their opinion, Web sites and technology “perform functions similar to what many teachers do in class and through textbooks” (p. 6) in serving as teaching tools and providing opportunities for language learning, and multimedia software is an excellent source of input at each student’s proficiency level.
Chapelle and Jamieson place special emphasis on the following ideas: (1) language learners should proceed steadily by learning structures and vocabulary that is just a little above their current knowledge (cf. Krashen, 1982); (2) language needs to be noticed in order to be learned (Hegelheimer & Chapelle, 2000); (3) interaction with peers is essential to developing learners’ communicative competence; and (4) learning strategies are necessary for language learning (Vinther, 2005). Besides, according to the authors, “teachers can guide students to be more autonomous” (p. 207).
Tips for Teaching with CALL consists of a book and an interactive CD-ROM. While the book presents
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
the content, “tips and their rationale and examples” (p. 9), the CD provides examples of what is presented in the book. The book is divided into eight chapters with corresponding units on the CD, plus a preface, an introduction titled “What is CALL?” and a conclusion called “After Class.” The topics addressed in the chapters focus on the following language skills and content areas: vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing, listening, speaking, communication skills, and Content-Based Language. Each chapter follows exactly the same structure: an introduction, between five and six teaching tips to develop the activities suggested in each section of the chapter, a description of the intended outcomes of the chapter called “What It Means,” a research review that links practical cases to research literature called “What the Literature Says,” and suggestions for the utilization of the content in the classroom “What Teachers Can Do.” The chapters are illustrated with color screenshots of existing CALL software programs, along with descriptions, the minimum proficiency level of the students for whom each activity is designed, and notes for implementing the activity, with a total of more than 100 examples of Web sites and software programs across the eight chapters. The authors also mention how students will need to interact with the computer and other students in each activity, how teachers should proceed with the ELT/ESL pedagogical assessment and feedback provision, and finally, how they can teach and reinforce both language learning and strategic computer competence.
The CD-ROM uses images and video clips to illustrate the contents of the book through demonstrations of learners using CALL software and simulations that guide them through authentic CALL materials. According to the authors, the demonstration “is a real-time video that shows how a learner might perform an activity” (p. 9), while the simulation “guides teachers through an activity as if they were students” (p. 9). Both demonstrations and simulations are divided into the same units (or chapters) as presented in the book (Figure 1).
Figure 1: CD ROM main menu
The CD can be motivating and helpful for teachers who may want to see applications of what has been presented in the book. Each activity on the CD is connected with the tips presented in the book (either
Language Learning & Technology 16
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
through a demonstration or simulation) and has three main parts: goals and instructions for an activity, the activity itself, and a summary and description of the purpose of the activity.
The book begins with a nine-page introduction that provides a definition of CALL, a basic notion of language learning theory emphasizing the importance of the communicative approach in CALL, and the role of computers in ELT/ESL pedagogy. In addition, the authors introduce three basic principles of language that guide their selection of activities in the book:
a)
Learners need guidance in learning English.
b)
There are many styles of English used for many different purposes.
c)
Teachers should provide guidance by selecting appropriate language and structuring learning activities. (p. 3)
A fourth principle, although not explicitly mentioned is that computers trigger communication between teachers and students and among students by providing appropriate input, especially in listening, reading, and vocabulary, and by facilitating oral communication.
Chapter one focuses on vocabulary, which, in the authors’ words, “is the most important aspect of language for students to learn” (p. 11), and that it is worth “spend[ing] time and effort studying vocabulary” (p. 11). According to Chapelle and Jamieson, the Internet gives “sufficient exposure to words in English that [students] hear or read” (p. 11). In the section “Tips for teaching vocabulary with CALL,” Chapelle and Jamieson stress that vocabulary is best taught when words have the appropriate level of difficulty, which can be identified by examining a word’s frequency, but missing for the reader are other criteria to support this condition. The authors remind readers of “including vocabulary illustration, explanation and practice…in [a] meaningful context” (p. 17), “looking at sentences from a corpus that contains key words” (p. 24), and using Web sites that can promote autonomous learning. Additionally, the CD ROM demonstrates how to foster communication among learners while building vocabulary skills. For instance, in the demonstration, two learners help each other to solve a puzzle. The CD reproduces the conversation between two students and shows how they solve the vocabulary task. The simulation section shows how the learners implement Tip Number Six (“Help students to develop strategies for explicit online vocabulary learning through the use of online dictionaries and concordancers” by using Compleat Lexical Tutor (http://www.lextutor.ca/). This chapter offers some motivating activities to approach vocabulary learning. While some of these interesting activities (such as crosswords or image identification) rarely take place in the classroom, students may do them individually through the Web sites presented in this chapter. This chapter clearly supports the importance of lexis in language learning. The authors even mention that “vocabulary is the most important aspect of language for students to learn” (p. 11) but they do not clearly establish whether computer based vocabulary learning is an explicit or implicit process or just even why they consider such importance. Readers will see that although Chapelle and Jamieson believe that “most students believe that they need to study vocabulary” (p. 11), little support is given to demonstrate this idea or even the implications of learning vocabulary through CALL. Nevertheless, this chapter is potentially key for understanding the rest of the book because the authors go on to emphasize the importance of vocabulary teaching in the following chapters.
Chapter two deals with grammar and follows the same structure as Chapter One. Although many teachers and students consider grammar important, the authors recommend “not to plan a syllabus around grammatical points” (p. 39). When presenting their tips, Chapelle and Jamieson assert that grammar activities presented on many Web sites are numerous, but many “are rather limited, as context is often at sentence level and practice is often in the form of recognition [instead of meaningful production]” (p. 41). They recommend CALL software with discourse-level activities, such as listening “to a part of a dialogue and then producing the target form orally” (p. 43). Chapter Two also includes suggestions for using
Language Learning & Technology 17
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
cartoons or movies for grammar learning which are available online. For example, a very attractive exercise suggested in the CD Rom is completing sentences with Understanding and Using Grammar-Interactive (http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/multimedia/programs/uuegi.htm), but the program offers a larger variety of grammar exercises. Additionally, the authors give examples of Web-based activities that provide “grammar assessment and feedback about correctness both before and after instruction” (p. 53), as well as ideas for developing students’ learning strategies. The CD-Rom demonstrates Tip Four, “Include evaluation of students’ regular responses and regular summaries of their responses,” by using Understanding and Using English Grammar – Interactive software (http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/multimedia/programs/uuegi.htm). In this demonstration, a learner completes a grammar test, looks at the scores, and accesses a tutorial with grammar explanations. In the simulation of Tip Five, “Help learners to develop strategies for learning grammar from texts on the Web through explicit grammar and inductive learning,” students can learn how to search for a structure in an online corpus, compare its distribution across genres, and see example sentences in the View Web site (http://view.byu.edu/).
Chapter three, focusing on reading, begins by stating that reading is difficult for “unskilled” (p. 63) learners, so it is important to familiarize students with the different contexts, genres, and texts that they are likely to read on the Internet. One of the most obvious, yet important, tips is for teachers to choose appropriate Web sites and reading texts (a few examples are provided), emphasize the vocabulary, and help students to understand the salient lexical and grammatical forms in online texts. Chapelle and Jamieson also stress the importance of using online support resources, such as glossaries, corpora, tutorials, and dictionaries. Finally, the authors add that “explicit teaching is better than simply letting the students sink or swim in their own reading” (p. 79), a criticism of those approaches that emphasize textual input alone may be sufficient to learn a language (e.g., Krashen, 2006). The CD-ROM demonstrates Tip Six, “Include evaluation of learners’ comprehension and language knowledge,” with Longman English Interactive 3 (www.esl.net/englishinteractive_34.html) by showing how a learner completes a reading quiz, submits responses, and checks the score. In the simulation of Tip One, “Select CALL materials with appropriate reading texts,” with Adult Learning Activities (www.cdlponline.org/), the user chooses a reading topic and a story, looks at two versions of the story, and tries a variety of grammar learning activities, games, writing short answers and so on. One of the positive aspects of this chapter is that many of the described activities might have been difficult for teachers to design on their own. One of the aspects that Chapelle and Jamieson fail to give the relevant importance in this chapter is to the use of real materials. Certainly, it is not difficult to understand the importance of free reading in language learning—and the Internet is an abundant source of reading input that usually may or may not require direct instruction, which appears to be the key aspect of teaching and learning in this chapter. As the authors say: “Call activities make it easy to find texts that are at the appropriate level of difficulty” (p. 65). Perhaps it is the texts that make the CALL activities valid and valuable for learning.
Chapter four deals with writing. It emphasizes how important writing has become in our daily lives for professional and non-professional communication, for example, through e-mail. The chapter presents a list of software and online programs that help students write and contextualize their work according to genre, purpose, and audience. The CD-ROM demonstration addresses Tip Six, “Help learners to develop their writing strategies,” using the Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment (DIWE 7) (www.daedalus.com), in which a learner chooses a topic to write about, answers questions about the topic, and begins an essay with a pre-writing activity. The simulation on the CD-Rom of Tip One asks a student to “select appropriate writing texts as models” with WriteFix (www.writefix.com/), explores arguments for an essay, examines organization and paragraphing, and “look[s] at a complete model essay for transition words or phrases”(CD-ROM). A positive aspect of this chapter is the presentation of Web sites that can assist learners in the process of editing and monitoring their writing. Overall, this may be one of the most useful chapters in the book because these Web sites can make students more aware of the
Language Learning & Technology 18
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
importance of editing and monitoring their own language production.
Chapter five deals with listening. The authors see listening as a constructive process that “involves decoding, comprehension and interpretation” (p. 125) and requires the speaker’s attention and knowledge to achieve understanding in real time. According to the authors, to select appropriate listening materials, teachers should look for those that have “already been categorized by level [and that have] relevance to the ESL learner, and that [have] pre-listening activities intended to activate [the] student’s background knowledge” (p. 127), as well as top-down and bottom-up activities. Teachers should also help students to develop autonomy in choosing materials themselves. The authors recommend using videos to enrich listening activities and provide examples to help improve the quality of teaching listening. On the CD-Rom, Tip Three suggests teachers “[p]rovide learners with opportunities for selective listening activities based on what they are hearing,” and offers a demonstration of Planet English (http://www.planetenglish.com/ in which a student reads the instructions for a listening activity while paying attention to a specific piece of information, and then writes a personal note using that information. The simulation shows a cultural activity from Longman English Interactive 3 (http://www.esl.net/englishinteractive_34.html) video and writing a personal note. In this chapter, Chapelle and Jamieson present resources, most of them free that can be accessed by teachers worldwide making this chapter an excellent resource for teachers in multinational environments. This chapter is valuable for many teachers who may struggle to find listening materials, although podcasts are increasingly becoming a common source of different recordings with different accents and registers. In this sense the section “help learners develop their strategies for listening online” (p. 145) gives some ideas that teachers should emphasize in their classes.
Chapter six deals with speaking and pronunciation. Chapelle and Jamieson state that the Internet is a convenient tool for obtaining speaking and pronunciation input because language learners can use it autonomously. The authors also suggest that the Internet makes students more confident about their speaking skills because practice is not subject to in-classroom anxiety from which some less confident students may suffer. Computers can also be used to complete dialogues, thereby possibly increasing fluency because “automaticity of oral language [will develop] through oral practice” (p. 159) and interaction with the computer. In the evaluation section, Chapelle and Jamieson recommend “software that provides visual feedback that plots the learner’s speech signal on the screen” (p. 162). Using Tell Me More (www.tellmemore.com/) for the demonstration of Tip 3, “Provide opportunities for oral practice through interaction with the computer,” a student simulates a chat with a computer program (with answer recognition). More interesting practice is presented in Tip Four, “Evaluate learners’ performance and provide feedback” (Connected Speech, http://www.masterspokenenglish.com/index.html); in this software program for phonology development, the user listens to a video monologue, segments the pauses in a text, checks the answers, records his/her voice, and obtains feedback from the computer. In short, teachers who want to place special emphasis on pronunciation, or those non-native speakers who feel that that their speech is not a good source of accurate pronunciation input, may find excellent ideas on the teaching of pronunciation, which often tends to be neglected. The main problem with pronunciation, which is not mentioned by the authors, is that the current software tends to adopt one accent at the time (say, British, American, or Australian). Certainly pronunciation can be improved through listening, but this was not addressed by the authors at all. A key concern is that the authors fail to recognize that there is still some empirical work necessary to be done in the area of pronunciation before we can make assumptions regarding the productive potential of CALL applications to improve pronunciation. On the other hand, the authors propose the interesting idea that using CALL to obtain “formulaic sequences” (p. 159) can become a valuable drive to memorize chains of words that eventually become a part of the learner’s speaking repertoire. In this sense, it is relevant to mention their support of using computers to trigger the speaker’s “automaticity” (p. 159), which is relevant to speaking as it is to the communication skills referred to in the following chapter.
Language Learning & Technology 19
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
Chapter seven, focusing on communication skills, conveys that “technology is an important part of normal communication for students” today (p. 171), and those students learn to communicate through communicating. Among the pros of Internet communication, the authors consider the ability to speak to people in distant locations, which can give students extra motivation. The authors see the challenge for teachers to design activities that promote both synchronous and asynchronous communication and reflective conversations that go beyond mere social interaction. Chapelle and Jamieson suggest that pen pal Web sites, messenger forums, or chat spaces can fulfill this goal, supported by online tutorials, dictionaries, and other resources. The CD-Rom demonstration presents online chat (using Microsoft Windows Live Player) while the practice-yourself section deals with how to contact and work with e-pals (online pen pals) through Web sites like Linguistic Funland TESL Pen Pal Center (www.linguistic-funland.com). This chapter provides good examples of effective use of synchronous and asynchronous communication devices and software to develop the students’ communication abilities in controlled classroom environments.
The final chapter addresses expected learning outcomes when CALL is used as an additional component to enhance language teaching. According to Chapelle and Jamieson “students who have experienced the CALL activities described […] while studying English are likely to develop the types of strategies and habits […] demonstrated [in this book]” (p. 212). Chapter Eight also addresses possible risks of using the Internet, such as plagiarism, criminal uses of the Web, technical problems with equipment and software, and varying levels of teacher familiarity with computers. In addition, this chapter also reviews the benefits of using the Internet as a source of readings, podcasts, and contextualized materials to obtain specific information for teaching languages for the professions, as well as English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This approach to online materials can be seen on the CD-ROM. The CD-ROM demonstration for Chapter Eight provides an example of an activity “that explicitly teach[es] field-specific language [in this case, medicine]” (Tip Two): a cartoon of a doctor-patient interaction at Englishmed.com (www.englishmed.com/). In the CD simulation, the user listens to a conversation between two business people, fills in a sales chart, and consults the conversation transcript and a glossary, followed by a cloze test activity using Talking Business Intermediate (http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/multimedia/programs/TB.htm).
Chapelle and Jamieson have written a reader-friendly volume that is free of technical jargon that is accessible to most teachers. The book is a well planned source of teaching ideas,with a well defined structure and plan for class implementation. The best aspect of the book is the variety of activities for teachers to choose from. Although the book has numerous valuable attributes, it also suffers from some shortcomings. For instance, the authors might have included a section on language assessment and free language tests, such as TOEFL (http://toeflpractice.ets.org/) or some others (e.g., http://www.examenglish.com). It would also have been useful to refer readers to free online journals, such as TESL EJ (http://tesl-ej.org/), The Internet TESL Journal (http://iteslj.org/), CALL EJ (http://www.tell. is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/), or Language Learning & Technology (http://llt.msu.edu/) for additional teaching ideas. Another potential weak point is that 65% of the websites referred to charge a user fee. Consequently, although the book is a great source of ideas, many teachers may have to browse free websites like Isabel’s ESL Site (http://www.isabelperez.com/) or About.com (http://esl.about.com) to find similar sources. However, although the emphasis on commercial websites is a flaw, the authors do emphasize that it is important for teachers to find, select, and adapt appropriate materials for their students (Doering, 2006). Finally, it is important to note that all the materials mentioned in the book are designed for teaching ESL. There is no mention of materials for the teaching of any other languages. All in all, Chapelle and Jamieson’s volume combines SLA and teaching with Internet activities. The book is an valuable contribution to the field and will be a useful resource for both novice and expert teachers.
Language Learning & Technology 20
Jesús García Laborda Review of Tips For Teaching With Call
Language Learning & Technology 21
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
Jesús García Laborda received his Ph.D. in English Linguistics from Complutense University (Madrid, Spain), an M.A. in TESOL from the University of Georgia, and an M.A.F.L.L. from the University of Wisconsin. His research interests include low-stakes computer based language testing. He has reviewed materials for TESOL Quarterly, Educational Technology and Society, Language Teaching Research, ELT Journal, and ESP Journal.
E-mail: jgarcial@upvnet.upv.es
REFERENCES
Axtell, K. (2007). Teaching teachers to use technology. New York: Routledge.
Clarke, S. (2000). Using the Internet: Modern languages. New York: Pearson Publishing.
Doering, A. (2006). Adventure learning: Transformative hybrid online education. Distance Education, 27(2), 197-215. Retrieved April 14, 2009 from http://www.polarhusky.com/ceu/transformative.pdf.
Gooden, A. R. (1996). Computers in the classroom: How teachers and students are using technology to transform learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Griffin, R. (2006). The Net works for language learners: Exploring the Internet for high-beginning ESL. Dubuque, IA: Kendal / Hunt Publishing Company.
Hardisty, D., & Windeatt, S. (1989). CALL: Resource books for teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hegelheimer, V., & Chapelle, C. A (2000). Methodological issues in research on learner-computer interactions in CALL. Language Learning & Technology, 4(1), 41-59. Retrieved April 14, 2009 from http://llt.msu.edu/vol4num1/hegchap/default.html.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (2006). Free reading: Is it the only way to make kids more literate? School Library Journal, 52(9), 42-46. Retrieved April 14, 2009 from http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/article /ca6367048.html?q=krashen.
Lee, C., Jor, J., & Lai, E. (2005). Web based teaching and English language teaching: A Hong-Kong experience. Beijing: The Chinese University Press.
Loucky, J. P. (2005). Combining the benefits of electronic and online dictionaries with CALL websites to produce effective and enjoyable vocabulary and language learning lessons. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(5), 389-416.
Sperling, D. (1998). Dave Sperling’s Internet guide. New York: Pearson Education.
Szendeffy, J. de (2005). A practical guide to using computers in language teaching. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press
Vinther, J. (2005). Cognitive processes at work in CALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(4), 251-271.
Windeatt, S., Hardisty, D., & Eastment, D. (2000). The Internet: Resource books for teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.