1. Structural Linguistics
an approach to language and language study based on a concept of language as a system of signs that has such clearly defined structural elements as linguistic units and their classes. Structural linguistics seeks to describe language with a precision approaching that of the exact sciences.
The term “structural linguistics” became current owing to the focusing of some scholars on the structure of language, which is a system of relations (oppositions) between the elements of a linguistic system. These oppositions occur in an orderly, hierarchical dependence within fixed levels. The structural description of a language presupposes the analysis of an actual text. This analysis makes it possible to identify such generalized invariant units as sentence patterns, morphemes, and phonemes and to correlate them with speech segments according to strict rules. These rules determine the extent to which linguistic units in speech may vary while maintaining their identity; that is, the rules determine the number of permissible synonymous transformations of a linguistic unit. Depending on the desired level of analysis, these rules are formulated as rules of the positional distribution of the variants of a linguistic unit. An example is the functioning of the principle of complementary distribution in phonology and morphology. This principle is also applied to transformational analysis in the form of transformational syntactic rules, which regulate the transition from the invariant deep-seated structure of a sentence to the multiplicity of this structure’s possible forms (the surface representation).
Structural linguistics was the source of generative grammar, and the ideas of structural linguistic analysis were instrumental in the formulation and resolution of many problems of machine translation. The combination of structural linguistics and typology gave rise to structural typology, which investigates the structural laws of the elements of linguistic systems and of language as a whole. Structural linguistics also facilitated the large-scale introduction of mathematical research methods into linguistics.
Structural linguistics was established in the 1920’s and 1930’s as an approach distinct from that of the neogrammarian school, which predominated in the late 19th century and focused exclusively on the history of linguistic elements. Structural linguistics was also distinct from traditional descriptive grammar, with its flexible concepts and its bias in favor of describing all languages, whatever their structure, with the grammatical formulations of Latin and the European languages. Structural linguistics emerged from the quest for a more consistent system of linguistic concepts and for methods that could be as rigorously applied to the synchronic description of modern languages as the comparative method was applied to comparative linguistics.
The first attempt to describe a language with exactitude was made by the ancient Indian scholar Panini (fifth-fourth centuries B.C). In the Middle Ages, similar attempts resulted in the formulation of a universal rational grammar, the Port-Royal grammar, and in the philosophical and linguistic works of Descartes and Leibniz. The development of structural linguistics was considerably influenced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, F. F. Fortuna-tov, E. Sapir, and L. Bloomfield and particularly by F. de Saussure and the work of the Linguistic Circle of Moscow, founded in 1915.
From the 1920’s to the 1940’s, the Prague, Copenhagen, and American schools further developed the concepts and methodology of structural linguistics. However, important contributions to structural linguistic theory were also made by such scholars as A. Martinet, E. Benveniste, A. W. de Groot, J. Kuryłowicz, and A. Sommerfelt, who did not belong to any school. The concepts of a structural approach to the description of language, first formulated as a theory based on phonological material, were developed by N. S. Trubetskoi, R. Jakobson, E. D. Polivanov, and the Czech members of the Linguistic Circle of Prague.
During the first stage in the development of structural linguistics, which lasted approximately until the 1950’s, the school’s theoreticians devoted considerable, and sometimes exclusive, attention to the formal description of language. They ignored the content of language and asserted that a linguistic system should be mathematically precise and regular. As a consequence, structural linguistics came under attack by both its opponents and its adherents. During the 1950’s, the investigation of linguistic meaning and the elaboration of such structural methods for describing meaning as componential analysis, generative semantics, and interpretative semantics developed intensively. The concepts and methodology of structural linguistics have been used in the comparative studies of Jakobson, Martinet, H. Hoenigswald, and P. Kiparsky on diachronic phonology.
As of the 1970’s, structural linguistics is apparently disappearing as a distinct school. The research methods developed for structural linguistics are used in conjunction with other methods in such linguistic disciplines as psycholinguistics and sociolinguis-tics. Structural linguistics has also influenced the development of structurally oriented research methods in such other areas of the humanities as literary theory and criticism, anthropology, ethnology, and sociology.
Osnovnye napravleniia strukturalizma. Moscow, 1964.
Novoe v lingvistike, fascs. 1–4. Moscow, 1960–65. (Translated from English and French.)
Apresian, Iu. D. Idei i metody sovremennoi strukturnoi lingvistiki [Kratkii ocherk]. Moscow, 1966.
Harris, Z. S. Structural Linguistics. Chicago, 1960.
A concise definition of the term 'slang' is: a dynamic variety of language that is used to show solidarity and claim in-group membership, and as suggested by Gibbs (1994). Slang is also one of the most important 'mechanisms' or devices for showing social awareness. This variety of language often occurs around 'taboo' subjects such as sex, drugs, alcohol, homosexuality, etc.
According to Lodge (1997), the colloquial or vernacular use of language is extremely important, not only to sociolinguists, but in the study of semantics and meaning in context. In his study, Lodge identifies three features of language variation that he believes are essentially true:
In addition, and on a slightly more technical note, there is interesting concept of the Standard Pragmatic Model. This model proposes that people would experience difficulty in understanding and interpreting slang, when compared to the literal meanings of the same expressions. The pragmatic model suggests that meaning should not be hidden or obscure, as all language should follow rules like Grice's Maxims. However, the reason why slang does not follow this model is since in attempting to understand slang on a literal level, it would cause many problems for someone trying to interpret such an utterance. In trying to interpret the factual or accurate denotation, the meaning would be completely irrelevant and nonsensical. This is why the listener is aware that there is a hidden meaning, or connotation behind an utterance.
1 ''I hope our cricketers will crush those touring pansies.''
In this example, there is evidence that some in-group shared knowledge is needed. In this case, it would be understood by a student who knows about the upcoming cricket match (the game, not the insects), but perhaps would not be understood to an older generation or an outsider to this kind of language variety. Here, the Maxim of Quality is violated, as the 'touring pansies' are in fact the opposing cricket team, and not a literal bed of flowers, so the utterance is not entirely true. The Relevance of this example could also be questioned, as it is a fairly obscure sentence that would not be understood by an out-group. The Maxim of Manner is also flouted, as the utterance is ambiguous, and the meaning is not clear. In addition, there is an excess number of words used, violating the Maxim of Quantity.
Gibbs, R. The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Understanding. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Lodge, A. 1997. The Pragmatics of Slang. University of St Andrews. Available online: http://wjmll.ncl.ac.uk/issue02/lodge.htm#3
The term “structural linguistics” became current owing to the focusing of some scholars on the structure of language, which is a system of relations (oppositions) between the elements of a linguistic system. These oppositions occur in an orderly, hierarchical dependence within fixed levels. The structural description of a language presupposes the analysis of an actual text. This analysis makes it possible to identify such generalized invariant units as sentence patterns, morphemes, and phonemes and to correlate them with speech segments according to strict rules. These rules determine the extent to which linguistic units in speech may vary while maintaining their identity; that is, the rules determine the number of permissible synonymous transformations of a linguistic unit. Depending on the desired level of analysis, these rules are formulated as rules of the positional distribution of the variants of a linguistic unit. An example is the functioning of the principle of complementary distribution in phonology and morphology. This principle is also applied to transformational analysis in the form of transformational syntactic rules, which regulate the transition from the invariant deep-seated structure of a sentence to the multiplicity of this structure’s possible forms (the surface representation).
Structural linguistics was the source of generative grammar, and the ideas of structural linguistic analysis were instrumental in the formulation and resolution of many problems of machine translation. The combination of structural linguistics and typology gave rise to structural typology, which investigates the structural laws of the elements of linguistic systems and of language as a whole. Structural linguistics also facilitated the large-scale introduction of mathematical research methods into linguistics.
Structural linguistics was established in the 1920’s and 1930’s as an approach distinct from that of the neogrammarian school, which predominated in the late 19th century and focused exclusively on the history of linguistic elements. Structural linguistics was also distinct from traditional descriptive grammar, with its flexible concepts and its bias in favor of describing all languages, whatever their structure, with the grammatical formulations of Latin and the European languages. Structural linguistics emerged from the quest for a more consistent system of linguistic concepts and for methods that could be as rigorously applied to the synchronic description of modern languages as the comparative method was applied to comparative linguistics.
The first attempt to describe a language with exactitude was made by the ancient Indian scholar Panini (fifth-fourth centuries B.C). In the Middle Ages, similar attempts resulted in the formulation of a universal rational grammar, the Port-Royal grammar, and in the philosophical and linguistic works of Descartes and Leibniz. The development of structural linguistics was considerably influenced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, F. F. Fortuna-tov, E. Sapir, and L. Bloomfield and particularly by F. de Saussure and the work of the Linguistic Circle of Moscow, founded in 1915.
From the 1920’s to the 1940’s, the Prague, Copenhagen, and American schools further developed the concepts and methodology of structural linguistics. However, important contributions to structural linguistic theory were also made by such scholars as A. Martinet, E. Benveniste, A. W. de Groot, J. Kuryłowicz, and A. Sommerfelt, who did not belong to any school. The concepts of a structural approach to the description of language, first formulated as a theory based on phonological material, were developed by N. S. Trubetskoi, R. Jakobson, E. D. Polivanov, and the Czech members of the Linguistic Circle of Prague.
During the first stage in the development of structural linguistics, which lasted approximately until the 1950’s, the school’s theoreticians devoted considerable, and sometimes exclusive, attention to the formal description of language. They ignored the content of language and asserted that a linguistic system should be mathematically precise and regular. As a consequence, structural linguistics came under attack by both its opponents and its adherents. During the 1950’s, the investigation of linguistic meaning and the elaboration of such structural methods for describing meaning as componential analysis, generative semantics, and interpretative semantics developed intensively. The concepts and methodology of structural linguistics have been used in the comparative studies of Jakobson, Martinet, H. Hoenigswald, and P. Kiparsky on diachronic phonology.
As of the 1970’s, structural linguistics is apparently disappearing as a distinct school. The research methods developed for structural linguistics are used in conjunction with other methods in such linguistic disciplines as psycholinguistics and sociolinguis-tics. Structural linguistics has also influenced the development of structurally oriented research methods in such other areas of the humanities as literary theory and criticism, anthropology, ethnology, and sociology.
REFERENCES
Saussure, F. de. Kurs obshchei lingvistiki. Moscow, 1933. (Translated from French.)Osnovnye napravleniia strukturalizma. Moscow, 1964.
Novoe v lingvistike, fascs. 1–4. Moscow, 1960–65. (Translated from English and French.)
Apresian, Iu. D. Idei i metody sovremennoi strukturnoi lingvistiki [Kratkii ocherk]. Moscow, 1966.
Harris, Z. S. Structural Linguistics. Chicago, 1960.
V. A. VINOGRADOV
2. SLANG - Are you In or Out? by Amy Newsome
Traditional interest in the variety of language called 'slang' and the usage of this variety has been highly prescriptive, something that budding linguists are always told not to be. Hence, a different approach is needed, namely a more descriptive one that relates to ideas and concepts relating to the field of study called Pragmatics.A concise definition of the term 'slang' is: a dynamic variety of language that is used to show solidarity and claim in-group membership, and as suggested by Gibbs (1994). Slang is also one of the most important 'mechanisms' or devices for showing social awareness. This variety of language often occurs around 'taboo' subjects such as sex, drugs, alcohol, homosexuality, etc.
According to Lodge (1997), the colloquial or vernacular use of language is extremely important, not only to sociolinguists, but in the study of semantics and meaning in context. In his study, Lodge identifies three features of language variation that he believes are essentially true:
- Variability is natural in language and essential to its social role in our everyday lives. A broad and increasing lexicon is essential in order to express the 'nuances' of human emotions and personal identity and experiences.
- There are no 'breaks' in language varieties, meaning that there are no pure homogeneous styles and dialects that exist. Rather, there are scales or gradations of linguistic style and language, and these scales are fluid and are subject to change.
- Language variation is not a free or unrestricted process. Even slang is subject to factors that are outside language, such as age, gender, and cultural background.
In-groups and out-groups
An element that is vital to the usage of slang is notion of in-groups and out-groups. One of the reasons that slang develops is the need for group solidarity (Cutting, 2001). This means that a certain group of people, for example a bunch of moody teenagers, feel the need to alienate their parents and use language that the older generation will not understand. In this case, the in-group would be the teenagers, and the out-group is the parents. The in-group has 'shared knowledge' (Cutting, 2001), and amongst the members they all possess the in-group vocabulary.In addition, and on a slightly more technical note, there is interesting concept of the Standard Pragmatic Model. This model proposes that people would experience difficulty in understanding and interpreting slang, when compared to the literal meanings of the same expressions. The pragmatic model suggests that meaning should not be hidden or obscure, as all language should follow rules like Grice's Maxims. However, the reason why slang does not follow this model is since in attempting to understand slang on a literal level, it would cause many problems for someone trying to interpret such an utterance. In trying to interpret the factual or accurate denotation, the meaning would be completely irrelevant and nonsensical. This is why the listener is aware that there is a hidden meaning, or connotation behind an utterance.
Knowing when to use Slang
This relates to a concept defined by Gibbs (1994), who suggests that knowing what kind of slang is appropriate in a particular situation is incredibly important. For example, knowing when to use ''inebriated, drunk, wasted or plastered'' when referring to consuming lots of alcohol is what identifies in-and out-groups. Or it's just whether you're cool or not.Slang's Relation to Grice's Maxims
Now for an example to illustrate how slang can violate the Grice's Maxims of Relevance, Manner, Quantity and Quality.1 ''I hope our cricketers will crush those touring pansies.''
In this example, there is evidence that some in-group shared knowledge is needed. In this case, it would be understood by a student who knows about the upcoming cricket match (the game, not the insects), but perhaps would not be understood to an older generation or an outsider to this kind of language variety. Here, the Maxim of Quality is violated, as the 'touring pansies' are in fact the opposing cricket team, and not a literal bed of flowers, so the utterance is not entirely true. The Relevance of this example could also be questioned, as it is a fairly obscure sentence that would not be understood by an out-group. The Maxim of Manner is also flouted, as the utterance is ambiguous, and the meaning is not clear. In addition, there is an excess number of words used, violating the Maxim of Quantity.
Conclusion
Therefore, slang is definitely a language variety that can be studied and observed with regard to Pragmatics and related topics. As a final thought, here are two quotes relating to two completely different opinions about the use of this particular variety:"Slang is the poetry of everyday life and it vividly expresses people's feelings about life, and about the things they encounter" (Hayakawa, 1941)You decide.
Or
"The use of slang is at once a sign and a cause of mental atrophy" (Partridge, 1935)
References
Cutting, J. 2001. The speech acts of the in-group, Journal of Pragmatics. Elsevier Science B.V.Gibbs, R. The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Understanding. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Lodge, A. 1997. The Pragmatics of Slang. University of St Andrews. Available online: http://wjmll.ncl.ac.uk/issue02/lodge.htm#3
About the author
Amy Newsome is an English and Linguistics student at Rhodes University in South Africa.3. Reasons Why you Should Learn a New Language by Damian M.
"Your child will be confused by learning more than one language."
This belief is prevalent in monolingual countries and has far more politics than science to back it up. Rest assured that your child's little brain has more than enough neurons firing to cope with two languages (or even more) without frizzing out. On the contrary, decades of research in countless studies actually show significant cognitive advantages to being multilingual. And what about the experience of millions of families around the world where multilingualism is the norm, not the exception? Just look at Canada, Belgium, Switzerland, and Finland -- to mention a few.
"I can see two languages, maybe, but more than that is too much."
Considering how much babies have to learn in their first years of life, another language really doesn't add much to the load. As long the child is getting regular interactions in the second (or third) language, there won't be problems. There is a reason why a two-year old child has fifty percent more synapses than an adult! Also, even if your child does not end up speaking all the languages, don't underestimate the value of a passive language, i.e. understanding it but not yet speaking it. If you already understand a language it is magnitudes easier to learn it later in school or as an adult, compared to someone who'd never heard it before. So, even 'just' understanding another language is most definitely not a wasted effort.
"Your kid is going to get all these languages mixed up."
It is true that some mixing will occur, but that is both harmless and temporary. As the child builds her vocabulary in each language, this phenomenon automatically disappears. How many monolingual children automatically fix mistakes after correct usage has been learned? For example, children begin by saying things like "Me want," when they mean "I want." And how many of them are still saying "Me want," at five? Eventually, the multilingual child learns correct usage in the same fashion as any other child. If you don't mix languages in your own conversation, it'll make it much simpler for your child to remain consistent as well.
"Why start now? Later your kid will pick it up in no time."
For all those who think it's a huge intellectual burden on your child to grow up with multiple languages, there'll be those who will tell you how easy it is. "Just go to a Spanish playgroup once a week, you don't have to be so strict about speaking it yourself to her all the time." Highly unrealistic. Studies indicate that children need exposure to a different language about one third of their waking hours to become actively bilingual. They'll likely understand a lot with less interaction, but they probably won't be able to speak it themselves. Learning a second language is simple for children, relative to adults, but in the beginning they actually need to hear a word thousands of times before it sticks -- unless it's a bad word, then miraculously you only have to say it once…
"Reading and writing in several languages? Some kids can't even handle that in one language."
It's true that many children have difficulties reading and writing well. However, reading and writing is a 'coding / decoding' process and is not linked to the number of languages a child speaks, as such -- although it could involve multiple alphabets, and then be a bit more work. Interestingly enough, access to multiple languages actually makes it easier for children to understand the nature of language itself, which, in turn, improves overall literacy skills. Research supports what many parents have long felt: that multilingual children have better-developed linguistic understanding.
Finally, if you are in a hurry or find that politely ignoring the opinions thrown your way doesn't work, you can always ask if they think Einstein's intellect suffered growing up with both German and Italian. And, he didn't start talking until he was three years old either, but he certainly seemed to make up for lost time!
So, are there no drawbacks or disadvantages at all to raising a bilingual child, then? Sure there are, but probably not what you'd expect. What those are and how you deal with them you can find out in the next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: The Snags.
It is a language rich in exceptions and spelling traps, where almost every rule is valid 90% of the time. English is a language with a vast idiomatic basis, which makes its learning very exciting and intriguing. There are about 4,000 idioms used in the American English. Wikipedia suggests that "to even explain what they mean needs about 2000 words of the vocabulary".
Idioms derived from the culture of the nation and from day-to-day life. In real context idioms explain themselves: 9 times out of 10 times, idioms carry their own explanation. The main function of idioms is to paraphrase what is going on, and what is being said.
Idiomatic expressions pervade English with a peculiar flavor and give it astounding variety, bright character and color. They help language learners understand English culture, penetrate into customs and lifestyle of English people, and make a deeper insight into English history.
Idiom is defined as an expression that does not mean what it literally says. Hence, its meaning is often quite different from the word-for-word translation.
The meaning idioms convey is non-compositional. It implies that you cannot understand the meaning of the whole phrase putting the meanings of each word together. If you look at the individual words, it may not even make sense grammatically. Idiom has the meaning only as a unit.
Professor Koonin defined idiom "as a stable combination of words with a fully or partially figurative meaning." This definition emphasizes two inherent and very important features of the idiomatic expressions.
Idioms have lexical and grammatical stability. It implies that they are fixed in their form, hence any substitutions and rearranging in their structure can lead to complete loss of their primary meaning.
Idiomatic expressions are integral units. It literally means that idioms possess indivisible completeness, so all the components are bound within one idiom.
Idioms are used in both spoken and written English, and often appear in newspaper articles. They are frequently utilized by native speakers, who feel the language at inborn genetic level.
One of the approaches to defining this linguistic phenomena stresses that an idiom is a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers of the language. It proves that only people who are very good at speaking English can adequately and to the point use idiomatic expressions in their speech.
Though, learning idioms present a host of difficulties to English learners, primarily because they don’t know the culture and history behind English idioms. That’s why they often use idioms incongruous with the situation. Indeed, English learners utilize idiomatic expressions very carefully, being afraid of using them incorrectly and being misunderstood. They find idioms very problematic to both understand and memorize.
Whilst, the majority of native language speakers can not always know the origin of idioms they use, though as long as they utilize them in every day communication, they know its meaning and feel where it is appropriate to use this or that idiom.
Undoubtedly, the correct usage of English idioms is finesse, which makes the language of the speaker more vivid and exciting.
Why the panic? Do we really need languages? Firstly, let's get absolutely clear about the needs; foreigners learn English because it is the language of international business. Ironically, our advantage and language learning dilemma is that we already speak English! Does this mean there is no need? Of course not. In business, just a few polite words to your counterpart in his or her language, are a very welcome sign of goodwill, and might give you that edge of competence which could mean the difference between making and breaking a deal. As a pedagogue I would say that 200 words and phrases would get you by.
'Earwormslearning' The recently released accelerated language courses claim that 200 words and phrases are easily taught in one week! Imagine this happening in schools and businesses throughout the UK. Every school-leaver could master useful situations in five or six different languages maybe as a multilingual GCSE. It would be useful for their future personal lives, good for business and fun in the learning. It would lead to broader cultural awareness, and be stimulating for the mind.
There is still a lot of muddled thinking about real needs. As native English speakers we have real advantages, which with the right impulse from government and business could give us the competitive edge. Let's get that needs analysis conducted ASAP.
About the author
Earworms founder, Marlon Lodge B.Sc. is an author, linguist and language trainer of many years experience, specialising in accelerated and brain-optimised learning techniques, as well as co-director of the accelerated learning company, earwormslearning.com. He lives and works in Düsseldorf, Germany. Contact: marlon@earwormslearning.com
Learning a new language might not be all that easy, but there are many benefits indeed. Many people learn languages for many different reasons, but here I will cover 5 fundamental reasons why you should open those books and get learning on a new language.
The first reason is because you'll have a lot more culture. People who have culture are people who are knowledgeable and who know their way around life. If you know another language, you'll be more cultured simply because this would permit you to travel more and you'll know the world better.
The second is because people will like you. People like people with knowledge, whom they can learn from, as long as you're not a show-off. People like hearing stories from other countries and from others, so by telling them about your travelling with your new language you may develop new friendships.
The third is because you'll discover so much. Not only will you be more open to a whole new culture, you'll be able to meet thousands of other people thanks to your extra language. No one knows where life will take us, and knowing this extra language might just make your life completely different.
The fourth is because you'll develop your mind. By learning you're exercising your brain, and so you should be faster at memorizing and doing simple mental exercises. When you learn a new language you need to put words and verbs together, which works your brain. You'll be very good at associating other things as well.
The fifth reason why you should learn another language is because it's fun. However, you need to make it fun. Learning a language isn't easy, but by enjoying the experience and turning it into an interactive game you can truly have a lot of fun. You can also learn along from or with someone else, which should be amusing for both of you.
There you have it – 5 good reasons why you should get a good course on any language and start learning. We all talk... I'll learn Spanish after I retire or I'll start learning this when I finish that... But if you don't get yourself a course now, then you most probably will never get one. Now is the time to start studying a new language, not later. You'll benefit from knowing this language sooner than later. So get those books out and start studying!
If you're interested in learning Spanish, you can join my Spanish class for free at http://www.dspanishclass.com.
The first reason is because you'll have a lot more culture. People who have culture are people who are knowledgeable and who know their way around life. If you know another language, you'll be more cultured simply because this would permit you to travel more and you'll know the world better.
The second is because people will like you. People like people with knowledge, whom they can learn from, as long as you're not a show-off. People like hearing stories from other countries and from others, so by telling them about your travelling with your new language you may develop new friendships.
The third is because you'll discover so much. Not only will you be more open to a whole new culture, you'll be able to meet thousands of other people thanks to your extra language. No one knows where life will take us, and knowing this extra language might just make your life completely different.
The fourth is because you'll develop your mind. By learning you're exercising your brain, and so you should be faster at memorizing and doing simple mental exercises. When you learn a new language you need to put words and verbs together, which works your brain. You'll be very good at associating other things as well.
The fifth reason why you should learn another language is because it's fun. However, you need to make it fun. Learning a language isn't easy, but by enjoying the experience and turning it into an interactive game you can truly have a lot of fun. You can also learn along from or with someone else, which should be amusing for both of you.
There you have it – 5 good reasons why you should get a good course on any language and start learning. We all talk... I'll learn Spanish after I retire or I'll start learning this when I finish that... But if you don't get yourself a course now, then you most probably will never get one. Now is the time to start studying a new language, not later. You'll benefit from knowing this language sooner than later. So get those books out and start studying!
If you're interested in learning Spanish, you can join my Spanish class for free at http://www.dspanishclass.com.
About the author
Damian M.4.Secrets of Speaking with a Genuine Accent by Owen Lee
Acquiring a genuine accent can be the ultimate icing on the cake in your journey to perfecting a language. While some accents are glaringly obvious like the American twang compared to the lyrical Irish accent, some are subtle and barely noticeable to the untrained ear. Eventually you may be able to notice these minor differences in accents between different regions and people. Mastering it can take longer, but can be very gratifying.
Let's compare the American and the British accent: although both are English, they are actually articulated using different parts of the mouths. Britons tend to use the front part of the mouth and the tip of the tongue, whereas Americans "push sounds together" with the back part of the mouth and to a large extent rely on the nose. That is why American English is to be said to sound "harder" (as opposed to "softer").
Each accent really is a system of pronouncing words in a standard manner. And the differences between them are best seen (or rather, heard) in the vowels. I used to tell my students who want to get a London Cockney accent to simply enlarge their mouth when pronouncing the "I" sound and they would immediately sound a lot more like some Londoners. Of course there are other little details which can only be acquired through active listening to the native speaker's speech.
Native speakers use different parts of their mouth and different facial muscles to get their characteristic sound. You probably have heard or noticed something about the French people. I'm not talking about their alleged romanticism (or snobbishness, depending on whether you're an admirer or not). It has something to do with the strong nasal sound. (Some even say that the French speak with their noses.)
There is some truth to it, though funny it may sound. To speak good French you have to first obtain the skill of "pushing" certain sounds through you nose.
The French are not the only ones with a unique speech style; each language makes use of different parts of your mouth and vocal chords.
Certain languages could be physically impossible for you to speak with a genuine accent due to some weak muscles of the mouth (which are never used to speak your mother tongue), but you can consciously develop certain muscles and breathing pattern to get very close to a native speaker.
At times you may find it really difficult to imitate a sound or to understand the way a native speaker is using his mouth. A very powerful technique I stumpled upon is what I call the "accent reverse engineering".
Observe how a native speaker speaks your own language. Chances are he/she will be speaking with an accent. This will leave you clues about how the native speaker uses his/her "vocal instruments", namely which part of the mouth he/she tends to use more, where he/she puts his tongue, how the air in his mouth is regulating, etc.
For example, if you are wondering how to speak German the way Germans do, just listen to how they speak English. You will notice that they pronounce English in an especially "breathy" way, accentuating all the "s" and "z". The British entertainer Sacha Baron Cohen does a very good job in his "Da Ali G Show", impersonating an Austrian. If possible, listen to how he pushes his tongue forward and tap on his palate.
Of course, performers on TV normally like to play into stereotypes and exaggerate accents for a comic effect. You should aim to sound convincing and not offensive.
Acquiring a genuine accent can be the ultimate icing on the cake in your journey to perfecting a language. While some accents are glaringly obvious like the American twang compared to the lyrical Irish accent, some are subtle and barely noticeable to the untrained ear. Eventually you may be able to notice these minor differences in accents between different regions and people. Mastering it can take longer, but can be very gratifying.
Let's compare the American and the British accent: although both are English, they are actually articulated using different parts of the mouths. Britons tend to use the front part of the mouth and the tip of the tongue, whereas Americans "push sounds together" with the back part of the mouth and to a large extent rely on the nose. That is why American English is to be said to sound "harder" (as opposed to "softer").
Each accent really is a system of pronouncing words in a standard manner. And the differences between them are best seen (or rather, heard) in the vowels. I used to tell my students who want to get a London Cockney accent to simply enlarge their mouth when pronouncing the "I" sound and they would immediately sound a lot more like some Londoners. Of course there are other little details which can only be acquired through active listening to the native speaker's speech.
Native speakers use different parts of their mouth and different facial muscles to get their characteristic sound. You probably have heard or noticed something about the French people. I'm not talking about their alleged romanticism (or snobbishness, depending on whether you're an admirer or not). It has something to do with the strong nasal sound. (Some even say that the French speak with their noses.)
There is some truth to it, though funny it may sound. To speak good French you have to first obtain the skill of "pushing" certain sounds through you nose.
The French are not the only ones with a unique speech style; each language makes use of different parts of your mouth and vocal chords.
Certain languages could be physically impossible for you to speak with a genuine accent due to some weak muscles of the mouth (which are never used to speak your mother tongue), but you can consciously develop certain muscles and breathing pattern to get very close to a native speaker.
At times you may find it really difficult to imitate a sound or to understand the way a native speaker is using his mouth. A very powerful technique I stumpled upon is what I call the "accent reverse engineering".
Observe how a native speaker speaks your own language. Chances are he/she will be speaking with an accent. This will leave you clues about how the native speaker uses his/her "vocal instruments", namely which part of the mouth he/she tends to use more, where he/she puts his tongue, how the air in his mouth is regulating, etc.
For example, if you are wondering how to speak German the way Germans do, just listen to how they speak English. You will notice that they pronounce English in an especially "breathy" way, accentuating all the "s" and "z". The British entertainer Sacha Baron Cohen does a very good job in his "Da Ali G Show", impersonating an Austrian. If possible, listen to how he pushes his tongue forward and tap on his palate.
Of course, performers on TV normally like to play into stereotypes and exaggerate accents for a comic effect. You should aim to sound convincing and not offensive.
About the author
Owen Lee is the author of a number of books about languages, including Ultimate Language Secrets - a guide to mastering foreign languages quickly and easily, and a number of other books. He is currently based in Singapore but was born in Shanghai. He speaks speaks Shanghainese, Mandarin, English, German, Dutch and Spanish.5.Brief Etymological Review of the English Word-Stock by Linda Correli
Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.
In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.
Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.
In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language.
The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word may be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language.
When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and the second - to the language to which the word may be ultimately traced. The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other.
There are different approaches to classifying the borrowed stock of words
The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans.
Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation.
Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for a word already existing in the English language.
Latin loans are classified into the subgroups.
Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.
In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.
Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.
In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language.
The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word may be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language.
When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and the second - to the language to which the word may be ultimately traced. The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other.
There are different approaches to classifying the borrowed stock of words
The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans.
Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation.
Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for a word already existing in the English language.
Latin loans are classified into the subgroups.
- Early Latin loans. Those are the words which came into English language through the languages of the Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted many Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of the Angles, Saxons and Judes into Britain (e.g., cup, kitchen, mill, wine, port).
- Later Latin borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated into English language in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the English people were converted to Christianity (e.g., priest, bishop, nun, and candle).
- The third period of the Latin borrowings includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman Conquest and the Renaissance. Some came to English language through French but some were borrowed directly from Latin (e.g., major, minor, intelligent, permanent).
- The latest layer of Latin words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and scientific words (e.g., nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, and vacuum).
About the author:
Linda Correli is a staff writer of www.CustomResearchPapers.us and an author of the popular online tutorial for students "What Teachers Want: Master the Art of Essay Writing in 10 Days", available at www.Go2Essay.com6. Raising Bilingual Children: Fact or Fiction? by Christina Bosemark, founder of the Multilingual Children's Association
"Doesn't she speak English? Oh, I see -- both Swedish and English. Doesn't that get awfully confusing? Swedish, you said -- when will she use that?" Get used to hearing these kinds of things. You'll get opinions from the barista at Starbucks, your mother-in-law, even your neighbors and strangers on the street. Remember, being a trendsetter always ruffles some feathers, and the best way to deal with unsolicited advice (other than running for the door) is to know the facts for yourself. Here are the most persistent myths on raising bilingual children."Your child will be confused by learning more than one language."
This belief is prevalent in monolingual countries and has far more politics than science to back it up. Rest assured that your child's little brain has more than enough neurons firing to cope with two languages (or even more) without frizzing out. On the contrary, decades of research in countless studies actually show significant cognitive advantages to being multilingual. And what about the experience of millions of families around the world where multilingualism is the norm, not the exception? Just look at Canada, Belgium, Switzerland, and Finland -- to mention a few.
"I can see two languages, maybe, but more than that is too much."
Considering how much babies have to learn in their first years of life, another language really doesn't add much to the load. As long the child is getting regular interactions in the second (or third) language, there won't be problems. There is a reason why a two-year old child has fifty percent more synapses than an adult! Also, even if your child does not end up speaking all the languages, don't underestimate the value of a passive language, i.e. understanding it but not yet speaking it. If you already understand a language it is magnitudes easier to learn it later in school or as an adult, compared to someone who'd never heard it before. So, even 'just' understanding another language is most definitely not a wasted effort.
"Your kid is going to get all these languages mixed up."
It is true that some mixing will occur, but that is both harmless and temporary. As the child builds her vocabulary in each language, this phenomenon automatically disappears. How many monolingual children automatically fix mistakes after correct usage has been learned? For example, children begin by saying things like "Me want," when they mean "I want." And how many of them are still saying "Me want," at five? Eventually, the multilingual child learns correct usage in the same fashion as any other child. If you don't mix languages in your own conversation, it'll make it much simpler for your child to remain consistent as well.
"Why start now? Later your kid will pick it up in no time."
For all those who think it's a huge intellectual burden on your child to grow up with multiple languages, there'll be those who will tell you how easy it is. "Just go to a Spanish playgroup once a week, you don't have to be so strict about speaking it yourself to her all the time." Highly unrealistic. Studies indicate that children need exposure to a different language about one third of their waking hours to become actively bilingual. They'll likely understand a lot with less interaction, but they probably won't be able to speak it themselves. Learning a second language is simple for children, relative to adults, but in the beginning they actually need to hear a word thousands of times before it sticks -- unless it's a bad word, then miraculously you only have to say it once…
"Reading and writing in several languages? Some kids can't even handle that in one language."
It's true that many children have difficulties reading and writing well. However, reading and writing is a 'coding / decoding' process and is not linked to the number of languages a child speaks, as such -- although it could involve multiple alphabets, and then be a bit more work. Interestingly enough, access to multiple languages actually makes it easier for children to understand the nature of language itself, which, in turn, improves overall literacy skills. Research supports what many parents have long felt: that multilingual children have better-developed linguistic understanding.
Finally, if you are in a hurry or find that politely ignoring the opinions thrown your way doesn't work, you can always ask if they think Einstein's intellect suffered growing up with both German and Italian. And, he didn't start talking until he was three years old either, but he certainly seemed to make up for lost time!
So, are there no drawbacks or disadvantages at all to raising a bilingual child, then? Sure there are, but probably not what you'd expect. What those are and how you deal with them you can find out in the next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: The Snags.
About the author:
Christina Bosemark is the founder of the Multilingual Children's Association, your web-guide to raising bilingual children with expert advice, parent discussions, resource directory and articles. She is also mother of two trilingual daughters and co-founder of the Scandinavian immersion school in San Francisco.7.Raising Bilingual Children: The Different Methods to Success by Christina Bosemark, founder of the Multilingual Children's Association
As the saying goes, there are many ways to skin a cat, and so there are a multitude of strategies for raising bilingual children. Among all these choices, one thing remains constant -- children's love for predictability. Have you ever noticed how poorly many children handle change and how they thrive when on familiar turf? When you've read that same story every night for two months, you'll know what I mean. Certainly, kids learn languages under the most chaotic conditions -- just look at the average dinner table scene -- but some predictability within the chaos spells safety and security, which in turn promotes learning.
Most multilingual families have discovered that a fixed language system in the home greatly reduces the tendency for children to mix the languages -- or worse, the flat-out refusal to speak the second language. One parent expressed it perfectly; "I've noticed that when Anna gets overwhelmed by something, she just tunes out. I guess that it is the toddler safety mechanism against information overload." Kees van der Laan continued, "But I really don't want her to tune out my Dutch, so my wife and I agreed on a language combination that we can both live by, while keeping it simple for Anna. I feel that the consistency is ultimately more important than which kind of system we use." In choosing your system, you'll absolutely need to consider what will work best for your family, but here are the two most popular methods:
But, what if you feel that your child still isn't getting enough language exposure? How do you motivate him to speak your language back to you? What if you find yourself letting the language system to slip to the wayside? In short, what do you do when you see signs of your carefully laid plans getting derailed? This is the topic for the next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: 10 Tips for Boosting The Minority Language.
As the saying goes, there are many ways to skin a cat, and so there are a multitude of strategies for raising bilingual children. Among all these choices, one thing remains constant -- children's love for predictability. Have you ever noticed how poorly many children handle change and how they thrive when on familiar turf? When you've read that same story every night for two months, you'll know what I mean. Certainly, kids learn languages under the most chaotic conditions -- just look at the average dinner table scene -- but some predictability within the chaos spells safety and security, which in turn promotes learning.
Most multilingual families have discovered that a fixed language system in the home greatly reduces the tendency for children to mix the languages -- or worse, the flat-out refusal to speak the second language. One parent expressed it perfectly; "I've noticed that when Anna gets overwhelmed by something, she just tunes out. I guess that it is the toddler safety mechanism against information overload." Kees van der Laan continued, "But I really don't want her to tune out my Dutch, so my wife and I agreed on a language combination that we can both live by, while keeping it simple for Anna. I feel that the consistency is ultimately more important than which kind of system we use." In choosing your system, you'll absolutely need to consider what will work best for your family, but here are the two most popular methods:
- One Person, One Language (OPOL) is the most common family language system in use. For instance, Kees speaks his native Dutch, while his wife speaks English. Each parent or caregiver consistently speaks only one language to the child. Sometimes OPOL requires extra "language supplements," such as playgroups, visits from family, a trip to the country, or a native speaking nanny or au-pair. It helps tremendously for your child to hear that his parent isn't the only one who speaks this language. Kids are savvy little creatures who are quite capable of reasoning that they don't really need to know a language if it is only spoken by one other person.
- A second option, slightly less common but tremendously successful is Minority Language at Home (ML@H). It simply means that everyone speaks the minority language at home, even if this language is not the native language of both parents. It is probably the most reliable method for raising truly native speaking children since it ensures consistent interaction from birth until the child leaves home. However, the ML@H parent has to be able to quell doubts and stay the course unwaveringly. When your child isn't speaking the community language on the same level as his or her monolingual peers (generally the ML@H child doesn't reach parity with them until around 5 years of age), it's difficult not to worry. The McColloughs in Germany remember "We were watching other children jabbering away in complete German sentences, while Patrick seemed incapable of getting out two or three connected words." Within months after starting preschool, however, he had transformed completely. "Now he can't stop talking in either language." Even when you know that your child is going to catch up, it can be daunting to watch him struggle. Some parents fear that he will never learn the primary language, even though this really only occurs when children are isolated from the primary language within a minority speaking community.
- Frankly, any pattern that works for your family and provides enough interaction in the second language is fine. Examples of such variations are: (1) one language is spoken every day, the other on extended vacations to another country; (2) one language is spoken in a certain location (e.g. if the children attend an immersion program), the other at home.
But, what if you feel that your child still isn't getting enough language exposure? How do you motivate him to speak your language back to you? What if you find yourself letting the language system to slip to the wayside? In short, what do you do when you see signs of your carefully laid plans getting derailed? This is the topic for the next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: 10 Tips for Boosting The Minority Language.
About the author:
Christina Bosemark is the founder of the Multilingual Children's Association, your web-guide to raising bilingual children with expert advice, parent discussions, resource directory and articles. She is also mother of two trilingual daughters and co-founder of the Scandinavian immersion school in San Francisco.8. Idioms: Piece of Cake or Hard Nut to Crack? by Linda Correli
A language is a living substance, which evolves under the influence of different factors. Being very flexible English language constantly enriches its vocabulary with the words invented by the language speakers, making it more colorful with new idiomatic expressions, and at times refills its stocks with the borrowings and neologisms. English just amazes by its extraordinary linguistic diversity.It is a language rich in exceptions and spelling traps, where almost every rule is valid 90% of the time. English is a language with a vast idiomatic basis, which makes its learning very exciting and intriguing. There are about 4,000 idioms used in the American English. Wikipedia suggests that "to even explain what they mean needs about 2000 words of the vocabulary".
Idioms derived from the culture of the nation and from day-to-day life. In real context idioms explain themselves: 9 times out of 10 times, idioms carry their own explanation. The main function of idioms is to paraphrase what is going on, and what is being said.
Idiomatic expressions pervade English with a peculiar flavor and give it astounding variety, bright character and color. They help language learners understand English culture, penetrate into customs and lifestyle of English people, and make a deeper insight into English history.
Idiom is defined as an expression that does not mean what it literally says. Hence, its meaning is often quite different from the word-for-word translation.
The meaning idioms convey is non-compositional. It implies that you cannot understand the meaning of the whole phrase putting the meanings of each word together. If you look at the individual words, it may not even make sense grammatically. Idiom has the meaning only as a unit.
Professor Koonin defined idiom "as a stable combination of words with a fully or partially figurative meaning." This definition emphasizes two inherent and very important features of the idiomatic expressions.
Idioms have lexical and grammatical stability. It implies that they are fixed in their form, hence any substitutions and rearranging in their structure can lead to complete loss of their primary meaning.
Idiomatic expressions are integral units. It literally means that idioms possess indivisible completeness, so all the components are bound within one idiom.
Idioms are used in both spoken and written English, and often appear in newspaper articles. They are frequently utilized by native speakers, who feel the language at inborn genetic level.
One of the approaches to defining this linguistic phenomena stresses that an idiom is a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers of the language. It proves that only people who are very good at speaking English can adequately and to the point use idiomatic expressions in their speech.
Though, learning idioms present a host of difficulties to English learners, primarily because they don’t know the culture and history behind English idioms. That’s why they often use idioms incongruous with the situation. Indeed, English learners utilize idiomatic expressions very carefully, being afraid of using them incorrectly and being misunderstood. They find idioms very problematic to both understand and memorize.
Whilst, the majority of native language speakers can not always know the origin of idioms they use, though as long as they utilize them in every day communication, they know its meaning and feel where it is appropriate to use this or that idiom.
Undoubtedly, the correct usage of English idioms is finesse, which makes the language of the speaker more vivid and exciting.
About the author:
Linda Correli is a staff writer of www.CustomResearchPapers.us and an author of the popular online tutorial for students "What Teachers Want: Master the Art of Essay Writing in 10 Days", available at www.Go2Essay.com9. A little multilingualism please by Marlon Lodge, founder of Earworms A little multilingualism please by Marlon Lodge, founder of Earworms
I'm going to stick my neck out here a bit and predict that no matter how many millions of pounds the government spends on language learning in the next few years; very few students will come out of it with the ability to negotiate business deals in Mandarin Chinese, German or Spanish. Of course with China looming there is a distinct sense of having ‘to do something', especially on the language front: "UK businesses will be severely hampered." (QCA) "The language gap will lead to a trade gap." (CILT).Why the panic? Do we really need languages? Firstly, let's get absolutely clear about the needs; foreigners learn English because it is the language of international business. Ironically, our advantage and language learning dilemma is that we already speak English! Does this mean there is no need? Of course not. In business, just a few polite words to your counterpart in his or her language, are a very welcome sign of goodwill, and might give you that edge of competence which could mean the difference between making and breaking a deal. As a pedagogue I would say that 200 words and phrases would get you by.
'Earwormslearning' The recently released accelerated language courses claim that 200 words and phrases are easily taught in one week! Imagine this happening in schools and businesses throughout the UK. Every school-leaver could master useful situations in five or six different languages maybe as a multilingual GCSE. It would be useful for their future personal lives, good for business and fun in the learning. It would lead to broader cultural awareness, and be stimulating for the mind.
There is still a lot of muddled thinking about real needs. As native English speakers we have real advantages, which with the right impulse from government and business could give us the competitive edge. Let's get that needs analysis conducted ASAP.
